Hesam Khalouei; Mohammadsadegh Basiri; Najme Hosseini Sarvari
Abstract
Introduction:The term "Absurd" in dictionaries refers to something irrational, illogical, or nonsensical from a rational or conventional standpoint. However, the title of Absurdist Theater "is not derived from the definition of the term according to the dictionary; rather, it was first used in a book ...
Read More
Introduction:The term "Absurd" in dictionaries refers to something irrational, illogical, or nonsensical from a rational or conventional standpoint. However, the title of Absurdist Theater "is not derived from the definition of the term according to the dictionary; rather, it was first used in a book by Martin Esslin under the same name." (Roberts 18) This word, which in a musical text means lack of coherence, has been translated into Persian as "theater of emptiness" or "absurd theater," but "it is a pure mistake to argue that this theater is inherently absurd and trivial based on the naming, but rather the theater of absurdity seeks to make its audience aware of the unstable and mysterious condition of humanity" (Nik: Ghanimi Halal 90) and the void and meaninglessness of human interaction in societies lacking depth and significance, reminding them of the futility and absurdity of human life with a critical view, and "from this perspective, all plays of Absurdist theater have a humanistic, progressive, and spiritual aspect." (Nik: Roberts 10)The roots and reasons for the emergence of this form of theater must be sought in the events of World War II and the perspectives of intellectuals in the post-war era. The horrors of war had confronted intellectuals with difficult questions about human responsibility and even the continuation of human existence, and the reflection of these questions in theater was the writing and performance of plays whose main theme was anxiety and feelings of guilt. The experiences of the Absurdists were the most significant transformation of theater in the post-war era (Nik: Brackett 198-204) which "employed various theatrical techniques contrary to logical analysis to indirectly reveal the emptiness of contemporary human life." (Stalley Persaud and Bulke 231) This form of theater "represents a transformation in contemporary theater and reflects tendencies that have been evident in the works of complex writers such as Kafka and Joyce since the 1920s and have been associated with some of the leading writers in Europe and the United States such as Samuel Beckett, Ionesco, Genet, etc." (Nik: Esslin 18) "Harold Pinter" is one of the main figures of this theater in England (Nik: The same 255; Brackett 300/3) and "The Birthday Party" is one of his well-known works that has been staged worldwide, including in Iran.Thus, the works of all these writers, including Pinter, have deep roots in a culture and tradition that "in Western culture, constitutes a coherent and consistent intellectual system requiring realism, avoidance of vain hopes, which considers despair, ultimately suicide and escape from the heartbreaking reality as the essence of human emptiness." (Setari 22) But in Iran, the attention of modernist writers to emerging forms of writing, including the writing of Absurdist works, can be seen as a continuation of a trend that began during the Constitutional period and under the influence of Iranians' acquaintance with Western literature. In the field of theater, "the period between 1963 and 1978 can be considered the peak of Western-style theatrical activities. Playwrights, according to their political, social, philosophical, and theatrical tendencies, used a wide range of styles of Western writers - from Brecht to Beckett and Ionesco - as a model and turned away from Aristotelian theatrical conventions to create dramatic texts." (Nik: Bozorgmehr Gofteman 154-158) Among these writers, mention can be made of "Behrouz Forouzan," "Bagher Sahraoordi," and "Abbas Nalbandian," who "were influenced by writers such as Beckett, Pinter, and Harold Pinter and were referred to as pioneers of Absurdist theater." (The same 159) Ghulam Hossein Sa'edi (1935-1985) is the most familiar of these playwrights and a influential writer in contemporary Persian fiction, but "his field of activity is the stage, and it is in this field that innovation is evident." (Dastgheyb 60) His work between the years 1960 and 1978 includes twenty plays, of which "Cobwebs in the First Eaves" and "Honeymoon" (1978) are among the last.In light of the above, the aim of this research is to comparatively analyze Sa'edi's "Honeymoon" and Pinter's "The Birthday Party" in terms of addressing the most important elements of Absurdist theater and analyzing Sa'edi's receptivity to Pinter's work.Background of the Study:Esslin specifically addresses the history and critique of works by writers who follow this approach in his book titled "Theatre of the Absurd." This book is one of the primary sources for this research and for many studies related to Absurdist theater. Other books by non-Iranian and Iranian writers mentioned in the sources of this research also form an important part of its background. Additionally, attention can be drawn to articles that focus on the characteristics of Absurdism in the works of Iranian writers; among these studies, those that have closer relevance to the present research include the following articles: Mohabi and Youssefian Kenari (2011) examine the extensive linguistic transformations in Absurdist plays and their role in the formation process of modern and postmodern literature. They conclude that Absurdist theater has had an impact on the evolution of the novel and in literary language after the 1960s. Rameshki, Shakery, and Faghfouri (2015), in their analysis of Behrouz Forouzan's plays, consider circular plots and open endings, poetic imagery, and the slanted portrayal of characters and their philosophical-belief views as the most important elements of Absurdist theater in his works. Alavi and Mozaffari (2016), while identifying Absurdist elements in "Wood in the Hands of the Wrestler," concluded that Sa'edi, by violating all the structural elements of traditional playwriting, reflects a pessimistic attitude towards existence in his work and puts generational anxieties in front of the deep sorrow of occupation and colonization. Salehi Mazandarani and Gobanchi (2011), in their research, examine how the concept of emptiness is reflected in the plays of the modernist playwright Ghulam Hossein Sa'edi and his direct and indirect reception of this theatrical style, showing that Sa'edi's reception of modern playwrights is much more than that of traditionalists.The subject of the present research is not to prove Sa'edi's influence by playwrights adhering to Absurdist theater, but rather to demonstrate Sa'edi's receptivity to a specific text that has been translated and staged in Iran, and without a doubt, Sa'edi was familiar with it. The results of this research, in addition to providing a more detailed analysis of how Sa'edi, as one of the most important and influential contemporary Iranian writers, was influenced by contemporary literary movements, can be useful in understanding and analyzing how Iranian writers are influenced by the form and structure of contemporary literary movements worldwide and be of interest to scholars in the field of comparative literature.Methodology:The field of comparative studies examines and studies the historical relations of the literature of a nation with the literature of other nations; how the literature of nations is interconnected; what they have borrowed from each other, and what influences they have exerted on each other (cf. Tah Neda 20). Different schools of comparative literature have different approaches to this subject, but "usually the study of the influences and similarities of literary works serves two main purposes in this field. This study focuses on interactions and similarities between two or more literatures, works, or writers of different nations, or on the specific role of some influential figures in transmitting intellectual principles and literary industries" (Yost 64). The French approach to comparative literature, while examining and expressing affinities and similarities between two works, also emphasizes the importance of race, environment, and social conditions, focusing on the relationships and interactions between two literary works, employing empirical and practical methods in comparative research, and limiting these studies to the examination of influence and impact on literary works (cf. Bersler 60-61). There are various connections between literary genres, ranging from the overall national literature to more focused studies on the influence of one writer on one or several other writers; however, these influences occur directly or indirectly, and although the means of transmission are not always apparent, translation and translators play an important role in this regard (cf. Yost 65-66).Translation, as a criterion by which a literary system can measure its indication and semantic formation, has been very important during the literary renewal of Persian literature (cf. Karimi Hakkak 115). The beginning of the acquaintance and influence of Iranian writers and intellectuals with Western literature must be sought in the Qajar period. "The continuous relations between Iran and the West began with the end of the Iran-Russia wars. In the aftermath of Iran's successive defeats by Russia, Abbas Mirza and his prime minister Qa'im Maqam realized the technical and scientific weakness of Iran and pondered solutions. They established factories in Tabriz and other cities and asked Europeans to come to Iran for living. At his command, 'The History of Peter the Great' and 'The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire' were translated into Persian, and Tabriz became the center for the promotion of Western ideas, customs, and traditions. Eventually, the students who were sent abroad for education by his order were the first to engage in the translation of Western literary works and then attempted to write like them" (cf. Behnam 21-23). Alongside Abbas Mirza's efforts to establish schools based on the European model, through his initiative, the first printing presses were established in Iran, and the publication of texts increased unprecedentedly; as a result, the printing of publications became widespread, and the translation of foreign works deeply penetrated all sectors of society (cf. Balaii 12).The translation of dramatic texts and subsequently, the writing of plays in the European sense also began with the establishment of Darolfonoun and the translation of Molière's plays, and some translators, due to their personal taste and preference, added Iranian color and flair to them; however, the oldest plays written in imitation of Europeans are the works of Akhundzadeh, which Mirza Jafar Gorgani translated from Azerbaijani into Persian (cf. Arianpour 1/336-342). With the beginning of the constitutionalist movements, especially after the end of the Minor Tyranny and the establishment of the constitutional period, the art of theater gained the attention of intellectuals and reformists, and after journalism, it became their second occupation; an independent magazine called "Theater" was published, the first theatrical groups were formed, and plays were staged in Tehran and other cities (cf. Malekpoor 2/28). Yet, all these efforts must characterize the reign of Reza Shah as the period of "the beginning of playwriting seriously and not professionally. In this period, we are once again faced with a wave of works written by literary figures" (cf. Malekpoor 101). Despite this, unlike the Qajar period, playwriting in this period was mostly influenced by the structure rather than the content of translated Western works, such as plays by Shakespeare, Schiller, Dumas, etc. (cf. Bozorgmehr Tathir 161-168).During the reign of Pahlavi II, in terms of the number of theaters, the diversity and prosperity of stage performances, the scientific approach to performance and theater education, and the establishment of the foundation of the national theater of Iran, considerable attention was paid. In this period, a new season began in the process of renewal, and Westernization took on a new form. Intellectuals gathered in Istanbul cafes, and the works of Sartre, Kafka, Camus, and Steinbeck were translated by them. Between the years 1340 to 1357, the magazine Sokhan became a forum for Western-oriented intellectuals (cf. Homaan 198-212), and many translations of Western authors' works were published in this magazine and other literary journals. The establishment of translation and book publishing companies and the activities of institutions such as the Franklin Foundation provided the opportunity for the publication of more translated works, including classics of world literature such as the works of Shakespeare, Chekhov, Molière, and others, as well as the works of contemporary American and European playwrights such as Williams, Miller, Ibsen, etc., became available to the audience. In addition, Iranian writers also wrote and published more plays, but there was no organized effort in the field of independent playwriting apart from Western thought in their works. One of these works is the play "Leilaj-ha" by Gholamhossein Sa'edi, which was published in the 8th issue of the 8th volume of Sokhan magazine in 1356 (cf. Bozorgmehr Discourse 355-357).The establishment of the Dramatic Arts Office in 1357 and then the Radio and Television Faculty and the Faculty of Dramatic Arts in 1362 had a significant impact on the translation of most Western theatrical works; because the professors of these two faculties were educated in the West, and the content of the courses was also in accordance with Western theater schools. Therefore, between the years 1365 to 1377, theatrical activities reached their peak in the Western style, and simultaneously with the increase in theaters in the capital and other cities, translators with various motivations (cf. Ibid 381-391) engaged in translating the works of foreign playwrights, including prominent playwrights of meaningful theater. The translation of works and the performance of plays by authors such as Beckett, Camus, UNESCO, and Albee, as well as insightful and critical writings about the plays of these authors, led to Iranian writers' familiarity with these works and the principles of meaningful theater.Pinter is also among the playwrights whose works were translated and performed during this period. "The Caretaker" is his first work that was translated into Persian in 1347 and staged a year later. "The Dumb Waiter" in 1348, "The Birthday Party" in 1349, "The Collection" in two performances in 1350 and 1356, and "The Elevator" in 1356 are other works of Pinter that have been translated (cf. Bozorgmehr Discourse 198-311). It was during the period of their continuous activity that Sa'edi served as a writer, translator, and literary critic. The simultaneous publication of Sa'edi's writings in widely-read literary magazines of the time, such as Arash and Sokhan, also confirms Sa'edi's deep acquaintance with meaningful theater. But since "comparative literature uses comparison as the main tool and not as the goal" (cf. Salamin Parvar 10), French researchers have focused on the impact of the work in their studies (cf. Aloush cited in Pirani 167). Therefore, comparing two works structurally is essential for researchers in this field.Conclusion:The subject of this research is the analysis and comparison of two plays, "Jashn-e Tavalod" and "Mah-e Asal," using the principles of French comparative literature. The results of this study indicate that Sa'edi was familiar with the elements of meaningful theater and the works of Pinter. The atmosphere of both plays is similar, and they both disregard classical narrative conventions. Both works begin with scenes portraying futile and inconclusive conversations and the display of calmness and repetitive routines resulting from daily life, confined to a constrained stage; however, Pinter's stage, although initially simpler and melancholic, evokes a warm and secure refuge that preserves the characters from chaos. On the other hand, Sa'edi's stage, while initially presenting a brighter image of a sanctuary, gradually turns into a confined and disturbing place, leaving the characters no way out. In both plays, the use of dialogue characterized by confusion, disorder, repetition, and length is the most significant theatrical element and the only event on the verge of occurrence. The theatrical characteristic of dialogues, fragmented and unstable identities of the characters, in coordination with the main theme of the story—portraying the turmoil and chaos of the world and the loneliness and distress of individuals trapped in this world—by disrupting the linear flow of time and emphasizing the tediousness of time, once again highlights the everyday boredom and futility of life.In creating the atmosphere of the play and portraying the characters, processing the space and time of the performance, the synchronous method of Pinter, the characterization of space and place, and the alignment of dialogues and characters with analyses and interpretations, it became clear that Sa'edi was directly influenced by Pinter's play in the stylistic innovations applied in "Mah-e Asal." He structured the narrative format of the play, including the form of the performance, the plot, the setting, the characterization, the language, and the timing of the performance, based on Pinter's innovations; however, sometimes he used details contrary to Pinter's style. With these interpretations, we come to the important conclusion that "Mah-e Asal" was created under the influence of Pinter's style and thought. Following the theatrical style and borrowing elements of "confusion" and "anxiety" from "Jashn-e Tavalod," Sa'edi, a writer whose works are characterized by "fear" and "anxiety," has created a notable and distinctive work among Iranian plays.